Islamic Countermarks

Mardin Hoard

c/m 4: جمال الدين محمود [Jamal ad-din Mahmood]

c/m 1: أتابك [Atabeg]

c/m 3: جمال [Jamal]

c/m 2: أحمد [Ahmad]

c/m 5: ذمام (?) [dhimam]

c/m 10: عدل ['Adl]

c/m 9: شمس [Shams]

c/m 8: سيف [Sayf]

c/m 7: سعد [Sa'ad]

c/m 6: سعد [Sa'ad]

c/m 11: عدل ['Adl]

c/m 14: عماد ['Imaad]

c/m 12: عدل عزّ ['Adl 'Izz]

c/m 15: فخر [Fakhr]

c/m 13: عزّ ['Izz]

c/m 18b: لله (?) [lillah]

c/m 18a: لله (?) [lillah]

c/m 16: لله [lillah]

c/m 17: لله [lillah]

c/m 19: محمود [Mahmood]

c/m 20: ملك الأمراء
[malik al-umara]

c/m 22: نجم [Najm]

c/m 24: د ل ا [dal, lam, alif]

c/m 21: نجم [Najm]

c/m 23: بدر [Badr]

c/m 27: Գ [“gim” 3rd letter of Armenian alphabet]

c/m 25: س د ا [sin, dal, alif]

c/m 28: لله (?) [lillah]

c/m 26: tamgha used by the Zengids of Sinjar and Nisibin

The Turkish title of Atabeg (‘ata' = father, 'beg' = commander) makes its appearance in Iran under the Great Seljuq dynasty. It was bestowed by the Sultan on those military governors appointed as tutors or protectors to princes of the ruling house who were still minors. Later, as these governors emerged from a state of vassalage to found independent principalities, the title became hereditary. It was used by, amongst others, the Zengids and the Ildegizids, but not by the Artuqids. A similar, slightly larger version of the countermark appears on Zengid coppers dated 554, 556, 569, and 572 of the three-quarter facing head type. It does not occur on the succeeding issue of Ghazi II, dated 575. Over half the Byzantine coins showing the 'Atabeg’ countermark also feature one or both of the associated countermarks 12 (adl Izz) and 13 (Izz), which are assignable to the mint of al-Jazirah or Jazirah ibn Umar, capital of the eponymous province in northern Iraq. This city, located on the Tigris to the north of Mosul, was responsible for a great part of the copper coinage of the Zengids, and may even have preceded Mosul in the striking of copper dirhams.

The countermark is combined with nos. 1 (four times), 9 (fifteen times), 11 (once), 12 (92 times), 13 (81 times), 16 (twice), 17 (five times), 18 (thirteen times) and 21 (thirteen times).

cOuntermark 1

c/m 1: "Atabeg”. Zengids of Mosul. Qutb al-din Maudud (1149-70 AD) or Sayf al-din Ghazi II (1169-80 AD).
Probably mint of al-Jazirah.

The countermark occurs on a single coin of Anonymous Class C in the 'Mardin' hoard.

cOuntermark 2

c/m 2: “Ahmad”. Attribution doubtful.

cOuntermark 3

c/m 3: "Jamal”. Inalids of Amid. Jamal al-din Mahmud (1141-83 AD).

The titles Jamal al-din (Beauty of the Faith) and Jamal al-dawlah (Beauty of the State) were both popular in the 12th century. They were borne, for example, by the Danishmendid Ismail ibn Yaghi Basan of Sivas, by the Burid Muhammad ibn Tughtegin of Damascus and by a son of Timurtash the Artuqid. The first two, however, ruled outside the area where countermarked folles are commonly found, while the third was never an independent ruler. The Inalid Jamal al-din Mahmud, to whom we assign this countermark, was also responsible for no. 4, showing his full name, and probably also for nos. 9 (Shams) and 19 (Mahmud). The length of his reign 43 years would account for the large number of countermarks in his name.

Owing to an engraver's error, one of the examples in the 'Mardin' hoard has the word “Jamal” reversed. The countermark is combined with nos. 9 (once) and 16 (once).

cOuntermark 4

c/m 4: “Jamal al-din Mahmud”. Inalids of Amid: Jamal al-din Mahmud (1141-83 AD).

There can no longer be any doubt as to the correct attribution of this countermark, originally misread by Karabacek as “Jamal ad-din Mumammad” and later correctly read by Lane-Poole, who, however, failed to identify the ruler. Behzan Butak (1948) was the first to assign it to the Inalids. The countermark occurs most often on imitations of the Constantine X and Eudocia type, three specimens of which - one with the countermark, two without - were acquired by Mr. Ilisch at Amid-Diyarbekir. He conjectures, plausibly, that such copies were manufactured at Amid itself, and there is every likelihood that the Inalids, who are not otherwise known to have had a coinage of their own, were the authorities responsible for their issue.

cOuntermark 5

c/m 5: “dhimam”. Attribution doubtful, perhaps Zengid.

The final letter is a little ill-defined, though sufficiently clear on most specimens. The word 'dhimam', if correctly read, may provide the key to the interpretation of the entire series of countermarks. It signifies the claim of a dhimmi, or non-Muslim member of the Islamic community, to the protection of his Muslim overlord, a claim dependent upon his payment of the jizyah or poll tax. It may be significant that on two of the twelve coins showing this countermark it is combined with the Zengid countermark no. 12 ('adl Izz').

The countermark is combined with nos. 12 (twice), 13 (once), 16 (once) and 24 (once).

cOuntermark 6

c/m 6: “Sa’d”. Attribution doubtful.

A common Muslim name, sometimes part of a title: Sa’d al-din (Gladness of the Faith) or Sa'd al-dawlah (Gladness of the State). A possible candidate is Sad al-dawlah Ilaki, the father of Jamal al-din Mahmud of Amid, who however died in 536AH/1141AD. Another is Sa’d al-dawlah Altuntash (547-54 AH/ 1152-59 AD), the Artuqid governor of Sumaysat (Samosata) and the Shabakhtan, a district to the NW of Mardin; but as a subordinate of Najm al-din Alpi it is doubtful whether he would have had the authority to countermark.

The countermark is once combined with no. 28.

cOuntermark 7

c/m 7: “Sayf”. Sayf al-din Begtimur (1183-93 AD). Mint of Akhlat.

Part of a title: Sayf al-din (Sword of the Faith) or Sayf al-dawlah (Sword of the State). The same word, in cursive instead of Kufic, occurs on no. 8, and it is surely significant that the two countermarks twice appear together on the same coin. The attribution presents difficulties.

Sayf al-din Ghazi I of Mosul (541-44 AH) and his successor Ghazi II (564-72 AH) can both in my view be discounted. The style of no. 7 is out of keeping with that of the known Zengid countermarks, nor is it found combined with any of them. It is, however, twice combined with the rare countermark no. 23 (Badr). I would propose, provisionally, that no.7 and the associated no. 8 be assigned to Sayf al-din Begtimur, the Shah-i Armen, whose seat was at Akhlat on Lake Van, about a hundred miles NE of Mayyafariqin and just within the confines of present-day Turkey. No. 23 may then belong to his successor Badr al-din Aqsunqur. Sayf al-din Begtimur minted copper dirhams. The uncertain countermarks nos. 24 and 25 (q.v.) may belong to the same dynasty.

The countermark is combined with nos. 7 (once), 8 (twice), 19 (once), 23 (twice) and 24 (once).

cOuntermark 8

c/m 8: “Sayf”. Sayf al-din Begtimur (1183-93 AD). Mint of Akhlat.

The inclusion of diacritical points leaves no doubt as to the correct reading. The countermark is twice combined with no. 7 (q.v.), also reading Sayf and hence assignable to the same ruler. One coin shows nos. 7 and 8 combined with the rare no. 23 (Badr) which we attribute to the same mint Akhlat.

cOuntermark 9

c/m 9: “Shams”. Inalids of Amid. Shams al-Muluk Jamal al-din Mahmud (1151-83 AD).

The number of points on the stars varies, and the countermark is occasionally reversed through a fault of the engraver. The word “Shams” is part of an honorific: Shams al-din (Sun of the Faith), Shams al-dawlah (Sun of the State) or Shams al-muluk (Sun of Kings). The extremely frequent occurrence of coins with this countermark suggests a ruler with a long reign-perhaps, as conjectured by Miles, Shams al-din Ildegiz, Atabeg of Azerbayjan (531-69/1136-73 AD). However it is hard to believe that so many Byzantine coins, if countermarked in Iran, would have made their way back into Turkey, there to be laid down in hoards. I prefer to follow Artuk (1971, no.1315) in assigning the countermark to Jamal al-din Mahmud of Amid, who reigned for 43 years. Points supporting this attribution are (a) the fact that the stamp often occurs on the same coins as countermarks assignable to the nearby mints of Mardin (no. 21), Mayyafariqin (nos. 16 and 17) and al-Jazirah (nos. 1, 12, 13); (b) that we have at least one other countermark of this ruler (no.4); and (c) that no. 9 is once combined with the scarce no. 3 (“Jamal”). The small stars may be a discrete mark of deference to the prestigious Najm al-din (Star of the Faith) Alpi of Mardin, to whom Mahmud was allied by marriage.

No. 9 is combined with nos. 1 (fifteen times), 3 (once), 9 (eight times), 10 (nine times), 12 (22 times), 13 (sixteen times), 14 (once), 16 (seventeen times), 17 (four times), 18 (six times), 21 (sixteen times), 26 (twice) and 27 (once).

cOuntermark 10

c/m 10: "adl”. Attribution doubtful, perhaps Artuqid.

The common formula adl, meaning "just” or “equitable”, is used on Islamic coins from an early date to indicate that they are of an approved standard of weight or fineness. The fact that this stamp is most often found combined with countermarks attributable to the Artuqids and the Inalids points to a mint somewhere in the province of Diyar Bakr.

The countermark is combined with nos. 9 (nine times), 10 (once), 12 (once), 13 (three times), 16 (five times) and 21 (three times).

The dal of “adl”, which on well-executed examples shows the proper curve to the left at the bottom, on others is rendered as a straight line. The word Izz is presumably part of an honorific Izz al-din (Glory of the Faith) or Izz al-dawlah (Glory of the State). The very frequent combination of this countermark with no. 1 ('Atabeg) (q.v.) points to its having been affixed at a Zengid mint; but it cannot be assigned to either Izz al-din Mas’ud I of Mosul (576-79 AH) or to his successor of the same name, for the very good reason that on two coins in the Mardin hoard it has been partly obliterated by the countermark of Najm al-din (no. 21) who died in 572 AH. If, however, it be assumed to have been affixed not at Mosul, but at its northern dependency al-Jazirah (Jazirah ibn Umar), it can be assigned to the Zengid governor Izz al-din Abu Bakr al-Dubaysi. According to Ibn al-Athir, al-Dubaysi was appointed to al-Jazirah by Sayf al-din Ghazi I and was one of the most powerful amirs of the latter's father Zengi.

Upon Sayf al-din's death in 542 AH he revolted and Qutb al-din, the next Zengid ruler, was unable to overcome him. He died in the last month of 551 AH leaving no heir and al-Jazirah fell into the hands of a Turkish slave named Ghul Beg, who ruled for two years, after which the province was reclaimed by Qutb al-din. Al-Dubaysi's independent status explains the existence of countermarks in his name. On over two hundred coins no. 12 is combined with no. 13 ('Izz'), and on eighteen specimens it is stamped over the latter. We conclude that the two countermarks emanate from the same mint, no. 12 being the later of the two; but there may have been a short overlap period during which both countermarks were in use, for two coins appear to show no. 13 stamped over no. 12. No. 1 ('Atabeg') is later than either and must belong to the period after the reconquest of al-Jazirah by the Zengids of Mosul.

The countermark is combined with nos. 1 (92 times), 5 (twice), 9 (22 times), 12 (seven times), 13 (212 times), 16 (eleven times), 17 (four times), 18 (21 times), 21 (four times), 22 (once) and 27 (once).

cOuntermark 11

c/m 11: "adl”. Attribution doubtful, perhaps Artuqid.

The dots are sometimes missing. The epigraphy is the same as on no. 10, and it is probable that both countermarks emanate from the same mint in Diyar Bakr.

The countermark is combined with nos. 1 (once), 12 (once), 13 (once), 16 (once) and 21 (once).

cOuntermark 12

c/m 12: “adl Izz”. ‘Izz al-din Abu Bakr al-Dubaysi (1146-56 AD). Mint of al-Jazirah.

cOuntermark 13

c/m 13: “Izz”. 'Izz al-din Abu Bakr al-Dubaysi (1146-56 AD). Mint of al-Jazirah.

The countermark features the same honorific as no. 12 (q.v.) and is so often combined with the latter that it almost certainly belongs to the same ruler. Reasons for its attribution to al-Dubaysi have been given above. No. 13 preceded no. 12 and was evidently still in use in 547 AH / 1152 AD, for on two coins it is found overstruck on the countermark of Najm al-din Alpi.

No. 13 is combined with nos. 1 (81 times), 5 (once), 9 (sixteen times), 10 (three times), 12 (212 times), 13 (five times), 16 (five times), 17 (four times), 18 (22 times), 20 (once), 21 (ten times), 23 (once) and 27 (twice).

cOuntermark 14

c/m 14: "Imad”. Zengids. 'Imad al-din Zengi II, Atabeg of Sinjar and Nisibin (1169-97 AD). Probably mint of Nisibin.

A number of examples show the mim detached from the rest of the word and written as a circle underneath. The countermark is certainly Zengid, for it occurs no less than four times in combination with the scarce no. 26. the Zengid tamgha or dynastic badge. It cannot belong to 'Imad al-din Zengi I, since it is once found struck over the countermark of a later ruler, Najm al-din Alpi. 'Imad al-din Zengi II was the first to use the tamgha, which appears on coins of Nisibin from c.580 AH / 1184 AD onwards. Nisibin was situated to the north of Sinjar, midway between Mardin and al-Jazirah and just within the presumed countermarking area.

The countermark is combined with nos. 9 (once), 14 (once), 23 (once) and 26 (four times).

The star is sometimes missing. The word forms part of the honorific Fakhr al-din (Pride of the Faith) or Fakhr al-dawlah (Pride of the State).
The countermark may in theory have been affixed by the Mengujekid Bahramshah of Arzinjan (c. 550-622 AH) or by the Danishmendid al-Qasim b. Dhul-Qarnayn of Malatya (c. 567 AH); but both of these ruled on the fringes of, if not outside the area in which countermarking is known to have been practised. Fakhr al-din Qara Arslan, on the other hand, ruled in Diyar Bakr; he was first cousin to Najm al-din Alpi of Mardin, who was responsible for countermarks 21 and 22; and he issued an abundant coinage in copper including some countermarked pieces. It is therefore highly probable that he took part in the practice of countermarking folles.
The star was perhaps added in acknowledgment of Alpi, like the star on the countermark of Jamal al-din Mahmud (no. 9).

The countermark is combined with nos. 15 (once), 16 (twice), 18 (seven times), 21 (once) and 27 (once).

The dots are often missing or differently distributed. “lillah”, “for Allah”, is a formula very commonly found on Islamic coins from the Umayyad period onward, and indicates that the coin on which it appears carries divine authority or is intended for a religious purpose. The countermark is most often combined with the common Inalid and Artuqid stamps 9 and 21, and hence presumably emanates from some mint in Diyar Bakr. Without any stronger grounds than that of general probability I am inclined to assign it to Mayyafariqin, the one important town in the region which would otherwise be unprovided with a countermark. Its mint, active under the Hamdanids and the Marwanids, was to resume operation in 581 AH / 1185 AD, after its submission to Saladin, when it produced an impressive series of large copper dirhams. No. 16 is often found stamped over other countermarks (nos. 9, 12, 13, 21) but itself is never overstruck. It therefore belongs to the later period of countermarking, after c. 555 AH / 1160 AD.

The countermark is combined with nos. I (twice). 3 (once), 5 (once), 9 (seventeen times), 10 (five times), 11 (once), 12 (eleven times), 13 (fifteen times), IS (twice), 16 (four times), 17 (once), 18 (three times), 21 (seventeen times), and 26 (once).

cOuntermark 15

c/m 15: “Fakhr”. Artuqids. Fakhr al-din Qara Arslan (1144-67 AD). Mint of Hisn Kayfa.

cOuntermark 16

c/m 16: “lillah”. Artuqids. Uncertain ruler. Perhaps mint of Mayyafariqin.

cOuntermark 17

c/m 17: “lillah”. Artuqids. Uncertain ruler. Perhaps mint of Mayyafariqin.

The countermark differs from no. 16 only by its outline, and when weakly impressed is difficult to distinguish from the latter. The two evidently emanate from the same mint, which may have been Mayyafariqin (see remarks on no. 16).

The countermark is combined with nos. 1 (five times), 9 (four times). 12 (four times), 13 (four times), 16 (once), 18 (once) and 21 (twice).

I share Hebert's scepticism regarding Artuk's reading of the countermark as Ina(1) or Yana(1), the name of the founder of the Inalid dynasty of Amid; and cannot altogether suppress doubts as to Weller's attribution, 'lillah', which requires us to assume that in all cases the final ha has been written defectively. The countermark is reversed on about half the known specimens and whether this is intentional or accidental is not clear. It is often combined with the trio of countermarks (nos. 1, 12, 13) assigned to the mint of al-Jazirah, but not with such overwhelming frequency as to justify its attribution to that mint. Of perhaps greater significance is the fact that it is combined with the scarce no. 15 (Fakhr) on seven out of the twenty-six coins showing the latter. If no. 15 is correctly assigned to Fakhr al-din Qara Arslan, of Hins Kayfa, no. 18 may also belong to this mint, which lay not far from al-Jazirah on the Upper Tigris. It is not found overstruck by any other countermark and hence must belong to the later period of countermarking, after c. 555 AH / 1160 AD. This is supported by the exceptionally worn condition of many folles on which it occurs.

The countermark is combined with nos. 1 (thirteen times), 9 (six times), 12 (twenty one times), 13 (twenty-two times), 15 (seven times), 16 (three times), 17 (once), 18 (once), 21 (four times), 23 (once), 26 (once) and 27 (six times).

cOuntermark 18

c/m 18: “lillah” (?). Artuqids. Uncertain ruler. Mint of Hisn Kayfa.

cOuntermark 19

c/m 19: “Mahmud”. Inalids of Amid. Jamal al-din Mahmud (1141-83 AD).

The name Mahmud is written exactly as on the “Jamal al-din Mahmud” countermark no. 4. The device above may be read as Abjad cyphers ayn waw = 76, for 576 AH or 1180 AD. The same dating system is used on an issue of Qara Arslan of Hisn Kayfa, where the cyphers are tha, nun, waw = 556 or 1160 AD (Lane- Poole 1877, no. 315). Alternatively, it is possible to read simply a 4, as on a copper of Amid dated 614 in ordinary numerals (ibid. no. 346). The countermark may then be interpreted as the fourth in Mahmud's reign (the others being nos. 3, 4 and 9).

No. 19 is combined with nos. 7, 23 and 24, all on the same coin in the Mardin hoard.

cOuntermark 20

c/m 20: “malik al-umara”. Attribution doubtful.

The Seljuq princely title 'malik al-umara' (Prince of Amirs) was borne by amongst others- the Artuqids, the Zengids and the Bekteginids, and appears on their coins. The countermark thus cannot be allocated to a particular dynasty, though the fact that it is once combined with the Zengid countermark no. 13 may be significant.

cOuntermark 21

c/m 21: “Najm”. Artuqids. Najm al-din Alpi (1152-76 AD). Mint of Mardin.

The honorific Najm al-din (Star of the Faith) was borne by two members of the Artuqid dynasty, but the evidence points unequivocally to the later of the two, Alpi. For one thing, he is known to have countermarked his own copper coins and those of his predecessor Timurtash, the name Najm being written exactly as on the countermark under discussion. For another, the countermark is found struck over nos. 9 ('Shams') and 12 (adl 'Izz), which probably belong to Jamal al-din Mahmud of Amid and Izz al-din Abu bakr al-Dubaysi: both of these ruled later than Najm al-din I. The star-shaped enclosure is of course connected with the meaning of the word Najm; but on some specimens it has deteriorated into a mere zigzag line, while on others it has been turned into a straight-sided polygon. The countermark was presumably affixed at Mardin, the Artuqid headquarters, where so many of the large copper dirhams were minted.

No. 21 is combined with nos. 1 (thirteen times), 9 (sixteen times), 10 (three times), 11 (once), 12 (four times), 13 (ten times), 15 (once), 16 (seventeen times), 17 (twice), 18 (four times), 21 (once) and 26 (twice).

A scarce variant of no. 21.

cOuntermark 22

c/m 22: “Najm”. Artuqids. Najm al-din Alpi (1152-76 AD). Mint of Mardin.

cOuntermark 23

c/m 23: "Badr”. Badr al-din Aqsunqur (1193-97 AD) Mint of Akhlat.

The countermark was first observed by Casanova on a coin of the Danishmendid Malik Muhammad. He read it as “Nun” and attributed it to Malik Muhammad's successor, Dhu 'l-Nun of Siwas.

However examination of specimens in the 'Mardin' and 'Diyarbekir' hoards does not support this reading: the first letter regularly has a diacritical point beneath it, proving it a ba, while the second letter resembles a dal rather than a waw. Badr (Full Moon) is attested both as a personal name and as part of an honorific, Badr al-din. As there were several rulers with this name or title the attribution to Aqsunqur the Begtimurid is tentative only. It is probably significant that the countermark is twice combined with the scarce no. 7 (Sayf), which we assign to the previous ruler of Akhlat, Sayf al-din Begtimur. Nos. 24 and 25 seem to belong to the same group of countermarks.
The occurrence of no. 23 on a coin of Malik Muhammad is probablv coincidental, the Danishmendid coin having been counterstamped because of its resemblance to a Byzantine follis. No. 23 is also found on a curious “double obverse” imitation of a follis of Michael VII, in the British Museum.

The countermark is combined with no. 7 (twice) and with nos. 13, 14, 18, 19, 24 and 25 (all once only).

cOuntermark 24

c/m 24: “dal, lam, alif”. Begtimurids. Uncertain ruler. Mint of Akhlat.

Since the lam is not joined on to the following alif, but is represented by its independent form, the letters are intended to be read separately, not as a word or name. They do not make sense as an Abjad date. A link with no. 25 is suggested by the fact that on both the last two letters are the same. Further, each is coupled with the scarce no. 23 (Badr). It is a reasonable inference that all three belong to the same mint, probably Akhlat (see remarks on no. 23).

The countermark is combined with nos. 5, 7, 19 and 23 (all once only).

cOuntermark 25

c/m 25: “sin, dal, alif”. Begtimurids. Uncertain ruler. Mint of Akhlat.

As on no. 24 (q.v.) the independent forms of the letters are used. Points of resemblance between the two countermarks, coupled with the fact that each is combined separately with no. 23, suggest that they belong to the same workshop.The star was perhaps added in acknowledgment of Alpi, like the star on the countermark of Jamal al-din Mahmud (no. 9).

cOuntermark 26

c/m 26: “tamgha”. Zengids of Sinjar and Nisibin. 'Imad al-din Zengi II (1169-97 AD). Probably mint of Nisibin.

The symbol is the tamgha or badge used by the Zengids of the Sinjar and al-Jazirah branches on their coins. The countermark, a scarce one, is combined no less than four times with no. 14 (Imad), which may confidently be assigned to Imad al-din Zengi II of Siniar and Nisibin. Nisibin, the more northerly of the two mints, is the most likely location for the countermarking. It was also the first mint to strike copper dirhams displaying the tamgha (c. 580 AH | 1184 AD).

The countermark is combined with nos. 9 (twice), 14 (four times), 16 (once) and 21 (twice).

cOuntermark 27

c/m 27: “gim” (3rd letter of Armenian alphabet). Artuqids (?). Mint of Hisn Kayfa (?).

Several specimens of this countermark have been examined by Prof. D. Kouymjian, who informs me that it is a perfectly formed gim (in eastern or classical Armenian) or Kim (in western Armenian). It is difficult to account for the use of an Armenian letter as a countermark in an area which at this period was completely under the domination of the Turkomans. However it may represent the initial letter of the name of an Armenian minister or official in charge of finance in one of the cities of Diyarbakr. As it is once combined with the scarce countermark no. 15 (Fakhr) and six times with the associated no. 18 (lillah?) it may belong to the same mint as these latter--i.e. Hisn Kayfa. It is also combined with nos. 9 (once), 12 (once), and 13 (twice).

cOuntermark 28

c/m 28: Attribution doubtful.

This puzzling symbol may be a tamgha, or possibly merely a faultily engraved version of countermark 18 ('lillah?). Like the latter it occurs mainly on worn, lightweight coins of the later anonymous classes. It is once combined with countermark 6 (Sa’d).

Artuqids

Zengids